background
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The Armenian plateau is recognized an important centre of origin for
cultivated plants. This is based upon both the number of extant wild
relatives of crop plants (criterion used by Humbolt & Brown in the19th
century), and upon the number of varieties of different species occurring in
the country (criterion used by N. I. Vavilov). Historical evidence has
revealed ethno-botanical use dating from the 8th century BC,
with excavations showing evidence of crop growing as early as
the 5th century BC. This discovery of early ethno-botanical
use is supported by evidence from ancient Assyrian cuneiforms
(9th-8th centuries BC) which suggest widespread cultivation of
wheat across the Armenian plateau. |
a r m e n i a |
Further evidence comes from Armenian
chronicles, which mention the use of a range of fruit species, including
Armenian varieties (e.g. fig, apple, pear, and peach) while wheat,
vegetables and forest plants are mentioned by Barsegh Kesaratsi (329-279
BC).
Archeological and ethno-botanical studies also indicate long-term
cultivation of grains (wheat, barley, rye, millet, oats), pulses (peas,
lentils, chick peas, broad beans), fruit (water-melon, grapes, apricot,
quince, plum, cherry, pomegranate, peach, apple), as well as nuts and wild
grasses on the Armenian plateau. This extent of cultivation and variety of
crops indicates that Armenia is an important site of origin for crop
cultivars.
Native to Armenia, apricot was taken by Alexander the Great's army back to Greece, where the Romans
then spread it throughout Southern Europe.
The botanical resources of Armenia, and their use, have
been studied since the 15th century (A. Amasiatzi), with more extensive
inventories, basic vegetation assessments and detailed studies of herbal use
being made in the 19th century (e.g. Radde, Grinevetski, Shamiramyan).
Vegetation mapping and geo-botanical studies have been carried out since the
1920-30s, starting with an inventory of pastures and rangelands. Since then
a number of distinct floristic regions have been determined, and vegetation
of all the main habitat types has been studied to some extent. Furthermore
the distribution and chemical composition of plants of industrial and
commercial value were also investigated.
Extensive studies of higher vascular plants have been carried out since the
1950s (the work of A. Takhtadjian), and have culminated in the production of
nine volumes documenting dicotyledonous vascular plants ("The Flora of
Armenia"). A further two volumes on monocotyledons will soon be published.
However, in comparison to these two groups, other flora are less well
studied. At present all groups of Armenian flora (lower and higher plants)
are not equally well known - the best studied being fungi and flowering
plants.
A number of endemic species and sub-species are recorded in Armenia represent 3%
of vascular plants in the country (as compared to 1,5% more widely across the
Caucasus).
species currently grown in Armenia
|
Group |
Genus |
Species |
Subspecies |
|
Cereals |
4 |
22 |
218 |
|
Pulse Crops |
3 |
6 |
|
|
Food
Crops |
21 |
366 |
|
|
Vegetable-Melons |
6 |
65 |
|
|
Fruit and Berries |
22 |
62 |
|
|
Total |
56 |
543 |
218 |
These 543 plant species represent 16% of fauna of Armenia
-
Around 10% of
plants found in Armenia have some medicinal use, and species of hawthorn (Crataegus),
buckthorn (Rhamnus), juniper (Juniperus), barberry (Berberis),
rose (Rosa), and St John's wort (Hypericumare collected for
traditional remedies;
-
Around 150 species of plants
are known to produce essential oils, mainly species of thyme (Thymus),
helichrysum (Helichrysum), and wormwood (Artemisia);
-
Plants used in producing dyes
(120 species) include spurge (Euphorbia), buckthorn (Rhamnus),
elder (Sambucus), and madder (Rubia);
-
A number of plants (c. 350
species) have an important role in attracting bees, including representatives of
aster (Acer), sainfoin (Onobrychis), alfalfa (Medicago),
lime (Tilia) and clover (Trifolium);
-
A number of species are also
used for their vitamin, tannin or resin contents.
-
Armenia
has over 3,500 species of plants, more than half of the 6,000 that can be found
in the entire Transcaucasus region. While Europe has around 20,000 species.
The relative species density (species per 1000km2)
in Armenia, compared with global estimates
|
|
Number of species in Armenia |
Relative density of species (number of
species per 1000 km2) |
|
Plants |
|
Armenia |
World-wide |
|
Lower plants |
4
854 |
161,8 |
0,15 |
|
Higher plants |
3
960 |
131,66 |
1,67 |
As a result of
wild range of factors affecting biodiversity almost half the plant species
presented in Armenia may face some threat of
extinction. To date, 35 plant species of economic importance are known to have
become extinct in Armenia. A further, 386 species (12% of the flora) are listed
in the Armenian Red Data Book (produced in 1988). At a regional level, 61 plant
species are listed in the Red Data Book of the former Soviet Union (produced in
1984).
wild relatives and crops
Cereals
A total of 13 species and approximately 360 varieties of
wheat are found in Armenia. Three species of world importance grow in Armenia (Triticum
boeoticum, T. urartu and T. araraticum), and the latter two
species appear to have originated in the vicinity of Armenia. A further nine
species of wheat (genus Aegilops) are recorded in Armenia, including some
wild varieties. A number of species of rye occur in Armenia (sub-species of
Secale cereale, and wild relatives S. vavilovii and S. montanum,
including 36 varieties). Barley cultivars (Hordeum distichon, H.
intermedium and H. vulgare) are planted and a further eight wild
species (with high intra-specfic diversity) occur naturally (including H.
spontanem and H. bulbosum).
Pulses
Native cultivars of runner beans (Phaseolus), lentils (Lens),
garden pea (Pisum), and broad bean (Vicia) are found in Armenia.
In addition, wild relatives of lentils (2 species), chickpeas (Cicer
arietinum; 2 varieties), and garden peas (3 species) are found.
Fodder plants
A range of fodder plants occur, mainly from two families - Fabaceae (among
others Medicago (10 species/varieties), Trifolium (30),
Onobrychis (6) and Vicia (36) and Poaceae (including species and
varieties of Agropyron, Arrhenaterum, Dactylis, Festuca,
Lolium, Phleum, and Bromus).
Fruits and berries
Fruiting plants have been grown since ancient times, and a wide range
of cultivated, wild and semi-wild forms are found today. These include apples (4
varieties), pears (17), whitebeam (10), hawthorns (11), plums (4), and almond
trees (4). Species and varieties of peach, quince, walnut, pomegranate, melon
and fig, are cultivated as well as varieties and species of the genera Ribes
(includes blackcurrant), Dospyros, Cerasus, Pistacia (includes pistachio
and turpentine), Elaeagnus (includes silverberry and oleaster)
Fragaria, and Rubus.
Vegetables and salad crops
As well as cultivated species, a number of wild crop species occur,
including beetroot, spinach, carrots, coriander, mint, asparagus, and leek.
Oil bearing plants
As well as cultivated crops the following wild species grow: flax hemp,
camiline (false flax), mustard (several species), safflower, and poppies.
Wild edible plants
A wide range of plants have been collected from the wild since historical
times, and some of these have since been brought into cultivation.
endemic plant species
Armenian bio-geographical zones are well linked, and the lack of isolation
results in relatively few endemic species. Overall, 106 species of endemic
plants are recorded (representing 3% of the total Armenian flora, and 1.5% of
flora found across the Caucasus.
In
addition, Armenia contains a number of regional endemics which are also found at
a limited number of sites in neighbouring countries. For example, Campanula
massalskyi only grows in one site outside Armenia (in Turkey), and Cousinia
gigantolepis only grows in the southern province of Armenia and in sites in
northern Iran. Overall, over 300 species are endemic to the Armenian-Iranian
region.
The
endemic flora of Armenia is of relatively recent origin (dating from the
Quaternary or Holocene), with no ancient endemic species recorded. This reflects
the relatively recent diversification of flora in the region, which has resulted
in the current botanical richness of Armenia. The distribution of endemics
corresponds closely with climate, and most are found in the southern and central
arid zones of the country. In particular the regions of Vayots Dzor marz/region and Yerevan
show high numbers of endemics (with 38 and 36 species respectively).
Number of endemic species within
different plant families
|
Family |
No. species |
Family |
No.
species |
|
Asteraceae |
26 |
Rubiaceae |
2 |
|
Rosaceae |
24 |
Campanulaceae |
1 |
|
Scrophulariaceae |
8 |
Caprifoliaceae |
1 |
|
Fabaceae |
7 |
Dipsacaceae |
1 |
|
Brassicaceae |
6 |
Euphorbiaceae |
1 |
|
Caryophyllaceae |
5 |
Geraniaceae |
1 |
|
Poaceae |
4 |
Hypericaceae |
1 |
|
Boraginaceae |
3 |
Liliaceae |
1 |
|
Apiaceae |
2 |
Linaceae |
1 |
|
Grossulariaceae |
2 |
Malvaceae |
1 |
|
Limoniaceae |
2 |
Polygalaceae |
1 |
|
Orobanchaceae |
2 |
|
|
Number of endemic species in different
genera
|
Genus |
No.
species |
Genus |
No.
of species |
|
Pyrus |
12 |
Tragopogon |
2 |
|
Psephellus |
8 |
Minuartia |
2 |
|
Centaurea |
7 |
Ribes |
2 |
|
Astragalus |
5 |
Acantholimon |
2 |
|
Verbascum |
5 |
Orobanche |
2 |
|
Rosa |
4 |
Alchemilla |
2 |
|
Cousinia |
3 |
Crataegus |
2 |
|
Isatis |
3 |
Rubus |
2 |
|
Stipa |
3 |
Galium |
2 |
|
Scorzonera |
2 |
Scrophularia |
2 |
|
Sonchus |
2 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Distribution of endemic species according to Armenian floristic regions and
altitude zones
| |
Low |
Medium |
High |
Sub-alpine |
Alpine |
|
| Upper Akhuryan |
- |
2 |
4 |
1 |
- |
4 |
| Shirak |
4 |
18 |
14 |
2 |
- |
19 |
| Aragats |
- |
4 |
5 |
4 |
4 |
8 |
| Lori |
1 |
5 |
4 |
2 |
- |
6 |
| Ijevan |
4 |
16 |
14 |
7 |
3 |
20 |
| Aparan |
2 |
12 |
12 |
7 |
1 |
15 |
| Sevan |
2 |
16 |
20 |
8 |
2 |
22 |
| Geghama* |
- |
13 |
13 |
10 |
7 |
20 |
| Yerevan |
13 |
27 |
18 |
7 |
- |
36 |
| Vayots Dzor |
8 |
29 |
22 |
11 |
- |
38 |
| Zangezur* |
6 |
16 |
13 |
8 |
4 |
24 |
| Meghri |
2 |
4 |
13 |
6 |
3 |
17 |
|
Total |
19 |
55 |
43 |
10 |
10 |
- |
* Marked regions are not administrative but
geographical
rare and declining plant species
Threatened plant species have been recorded from all regions. Many of the
rare and threatened plants in Armenia are associated with wetlands;
water-marsh systems alone contain 45 plant species which are considered to
be in need of conservation attention. The greatest threat to wetland plants
has been drainage of marsh and wetlands for agriculture. Around 20,000 ha of
wetland sites have been drained across the country, resulting in inevitable
damage to these ecosystems and associated flora. However, a number of other
threats affect water plants.
A
number of species (including yellow water lily (Nuphar luteum),
bogbean (Menyanthes frifoliata) and flowering rush (Butomus
umbellatus) were lost when Lake Arpi was converted into a reservoir.
The drainage of Lake Gilly and decline in water levels in Lake Sevan,
severely affected populations of around 60 species of water plants
(including Peucedanum zedelmeyerianum, Eleocharis transcaucasica,
Astragalus goktschaicus and Puccinellia grossehimii) and a
number of species disappeared completely following these activities.
Medicinal plants such as sweet flag (Acorus calamus), which has
traditionally been used to treat gastro-intestinal problems, have suffered
over-collection.
relict plant
specie
Relict species, which have been preserved since geological time practically
unchanged, are an important component of botanical diversity of Armenia. It
is estimated that between 150 and 200 relict species occur, although
accurate determination is limited by gaps in the fossil record. Some species
(such as Oriental beech Fagus orientalis, which originated in the Tertiary
period) are well adapted to contemporary conditions, and compete well with
younger species. Other relicts are widely spread but are only associated
with particular habitats (e.g. yew, Caucasian rosebay), while some species
are restricted to specific sites or refuges (e.g. Oriental plane Platanus
orientalis and male fern Dryopteris filix-mas). There is also evidence of
relict fungi species occurring in deserts and steppes including Podaxis
pistillaris and Battarea phalloides.
vascular plants
Most groups of higher plants are represented in Armenia, including
peat-moss, horse-tails, ferns, gymnosperms (open-
d flowering plants) and
angiosperms (closed
d flowering plants). A brief overview of each of
these groups is presented below.
Number of species of different groups of higher plants
found in Armenia
|
Group |
No. species |
|
Peat-mosses |
2 |
|
Horse-tails |
6 |
|
Ferns |
38 |
|
Gymnosperms |
9 |
|
Ephedraceae |
(2) |
|
Taxaceae |
(1) |
|
Pinaceae |
(1) |
|
Cupressaceae |
(5) |
|
Angiosperms |
c.3500 |
|
Monocotyledons |
(800) |
|
Dicotyledons |
(2700) |
|
Total: |
c.3555 |
Peat-mosses.
In Armenia only Selaginella helvetica occurs in sub-alpine meadow wetlands
in the north-east of the country.
Horse-tails.
Six species of horsetails are found in Armenia, mainly in relatively damp
areas in forests, river valleys and shorelines. The most common species are
Equisetum arvense, E. palustre, and E. ramosissimum, and although of no
commercial use, many were used for traditional medicine.
Ferns.
Of the 10,000 species of ferns described globally, a total of 38 species of
ferns are found in Armenia, the most common species include male fern (Dryopteris
filix-mas), Ophioglossum vulgatum, Cystopteris fragilis, Polypodium vulgare,
Athyrium filix feminum, Asplenium spp. and Trichomanes spp. Compared with
other groups of higher plants ferns have limited economic value, although
they do have some decorative, edible and medicinal uses.
Gymnosperms.
Of some 600 species of gymnosperms described world-wide, only nine species
are recorded in Armenia, including some introduced species. Genera
represented include juniper (Juniperus; 5 species), pine (Pinus; 1 species),
yew (Taxus; 1 species) and Ephedra (2 species).
Angiosperms.
These are the most diverse and abundant group of
higher plants in Armenia, and represent almost 50% of the overall flora of
the Caucasus. More than 3500 species of higher vascular plants of 200
families grow in Armenia, in total covering approximately 30,000 km 2 of the
land surface of the country. As well as common temperate zone species, a
number of endemic and relict forms, with restricted distributions, are found
(Chapter 3). In addition, there is high diversity among cultivated species
(Chapter 4). The diversity of plants found in Armenia reflects not just its
bio-geographical position, but the range of landscapes and habitats
represented in the country.
phytoplanlkton
A total of 417 plant species (of 67 families) are known to
occur in the rivers and lakes of Armenia. Most of these (58%, 246 species)
belong to ten plant families. Not surprisingly, plant families associated
with water or damp sites are particularly well represented in this flora (Cyperaceae
and Potamogetonaceae).
Key families of aquatic plants in Armenia, and the
number of species recorded in each family
In general, relatively few aquatic plants are found in the
rivers and lakes of high mountains (only 10% of the aquatic flora is
recorded above 2700m), most are found at mid- (1200-2700m) or low- (<1200 m)
altitude (50% and 40% of the flora, respectively). Studies of the
distribution of aquatic plants in Armenia have identified some key sites for
these plants:
Lakes of mid-altitude and in steppes are particularly rich
in water and marchland plants.
Many rare species (such as Nymphaea alba,
Salvinia natans, Carex bhemica) are found in the relict lowlands
lakes in Lori region.
The Metsamor (Sevajur) river supports many aquatic and
marshland species including nationally and regionally rare species. This is
partly explained by its high water quality and slow speed.
The Lake Sevan basin supports flowering water plants in
its upper waters (above 6 m.) while algae flourish at greater depths
Despite the large-scale drainage and destruction of
marshland in vicinity in Lake Sevan, some populations of reeds, rushes (Juncus),
reed mace (Typha) and sedge (Carex) can still be found close
to springs and emerging groundwater.
A limited number of aquatic plants are found in forest
lakes. Ponds in shady woodlands (such asthose of beech and oak) tend to be
dominated by algal blooms and where flowering aquatic plants do occur, their
cover is relatively sparse.
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